The Figurative in Writing

Words and combinations of words may have two meanings, their literal meaning, and a secondary figurative meaning acquired through custom from the literal. The most perfect example of the composition in which the figurative is rigidly excluded is the ordinary legal document, the dry and uninteresting character of which is proverbial.

Of all the figures in common use the metaphor is the most popular. Purge literature of its metaphors and it would be barren indeed. The office of the metaphor is not merely to heighten the beauty of an expression. It renders comprehensible what without it would be abstruse; it lends force to propositions which otherwise would fall flat; it impresses that upon the memory which if stated baldly would have been soon forgotten. It conveys more to the mind than the mere statement of fact. When we read in history that at a certain time a certain British officer was designated as "that old fox," a whole train of thought regarding the man and his characteristics is suggested which would never have been awakened by the mere mention of his name.

Great care should be taken, however, in choosing metaphors, for it is but a step from the sublime to the ridiculous. "Providence has smiled upon us," is a good figure, but "The hand of Providence has smiled upon us," as one orator is alleged to have expressed, is ludicrous. The Bible abounds in metaphors. "Israel is an empty vine," is a good example.

The simile is a simpler form than the metaphor. It introduces a comparison by the use of the words "like" and "as."

Metonymy substitutes the cause for the effect, or the sign for the thing signified, as "cup" for "wine," "sword" for "war," etc.

Synecdoche substitutes the genus for the species, or vice versa. For example, "meat" or "bread" for "food"; "mortals" for "men"; calling a traitor a "Judas."

Antithesis is one of the most effective figures. The surest way of placing things in right relations is by contrast. The Bible abounds in teachings in antithetical form. "There is that scattereth and yet increaseth; and there is that withholdeth more than is meet, but it tendeth to poverty." Macaulay was a master of the antithetical style.

Irony, the subtlest of figures, consists in using language so as to convey a meaning diametrically opposite to the literal meaning of the words. Antony's oration at the bier of Caesar is one of the best examples of irony in literature. Elijah's taunting speech to the prophets of Baal is a good Scriptural example.

Personification is the application of the attributes of life to inanimate objects, or to abstract qualities such as truth, virtue, and the like. Literature abounds in apostrophes to Sleep, Night, Gold, the Sea, the Sun, etc.

The allegory is one of the most effective methods of presenting truth. Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is the greatest allegory in the English language. There are many more figures of speech but these are the principal ones.

A few cautions regarding their use are necessary: The writer should beware of over-indulgence in the use of the figure. A composition in which the figure is superabundant has been likened to a dinner consisting entirely of spices. The excessive use of figurative language savors unmistakably of affectation and weakens rather than strengthens.

To be intelligible, the figure should not be drawn from objects about which little is known. To draw analogies from some abstruse science tends to ,befog rather than illuminate the subject.

Over-worked figures, like over-worked quotations, should be avoided. The "ruby lips" of the heroine have worked overtime from the period when they were first introduced into romantic literature. To be in good taste, figures should not be drawn from incongruous, unpleasant or repulsive objects.